# A First Look at Communication Theory

Annotated Link

Notes are taken with Stanford COMM 208 Media Processes and Effects with Prof. Robby Ratan&#x20;

## Chapters 2 & 3: Talk about Theory and Weighing the Words&#x20;

**Objective vs. Interpretive Theory**&#x20;

The objective theory assumes that truth is singular and is accessible through unbiased sensory observation, committed to uncovering cause-and-effect relationships.&#x20;

Evaluation criteria for objective theory&#x20;

* Prediction of future&#x20;
* Explanation of data&#x20;
* Relative simplicity&#x20;
* Testable hypothesis&#x20;
* Practical utility&#x20;
* Quantitative research (experiment, survey ...)&#x20;

The interpretive theory assumes that multiple meanings or truths are possible.&#x20;

Evaluation criteria for interpretive theory&#x20;

* Clarification of values: what kind of values are built into the theory and of the author&#x20;
* New understanding of people&#x20;
* Aesthetic appeal&#x20;
* Community of agreement&#x20;
* Reform of society: aim to generate change&#x20;
* Qualitative research (textual analysis, ethnography...)&#x20;

## Chapter 4: Mapping the Territory&#x20;

1. The socio-psychological tradition - communication as interaction and influence
   * Cause and effect of different communication processes &#x20;
2. The cybernetic tradition: Communication as a system of information processing&#x20;
   * How things flow in the system (e.g., relationship network)&#x20;
3. The rhetorical tradition: Communication as artful public address
   * How communication changes the minds of others&#x20;
4. The semiotic tradition: Communication as the process of sharing meaning through signs&#x20;
   * A sign is anything that can stand for other things&#x20;
   * A symbol is an arbitrary word / non-verbal signs that bear no natural connection with the things they describe.&#x20;
   * How are signs and symbols used and have their meanings changed
5. The socio-cultural tradition: Communication as the creation and enactment of social reality&#x20;
6. The critical tradition: Communication as a reflective challenge to the unjust discourse&#x20;
7. The phenomenological tradition: Communication as the experience of self and others through dialogue
   * It's all about understanding personal experiences (specifically to that person) and how to build a mutual connection

## Interpersonal Communication Theories&#x20;

### Chapter 5: Symbolic Interactionism of George Herbert Mead

## Media Effect Theories&#x20;

Start with the Magic Bullet Hypothesis (1940s) where media effect is conceptualized as a hyperdermic needle.&#x20;

In 1950s - 60s, the field transit to limited effect approaches, such as:&#x20;

* Selective Exposure: people only attend to aggregable media and avoid contradiction (Cognitive Dissonance)&#x20;
* Uses and Gratification: People choose media to fulfill their needs, which differ by individual and medium&#x20;
* Indirect effect: two-step or mlti-step flow model of communication, such as
  * Media -> Opinion Leaders -> Masses&#x20;
  * Media -> Masses -> Opinion leader validation I

In 1970s - 90s, the field transit to Powerful-Effect Models&#x20;

* Explanatory links became clearer&#x20;
* Excitation Transfer Theory&#x20;
* Social Cognitive Theory: vicarious experience with attention, retention, motivation give raise to learning&#x20;

## Relationship Development

&#x20;Experiential approach by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers

* Congruence&#x20;
* Unconditional positive regard&#x20;
* Empathic understanding&#x20;

Rewards and cost of interaction by economist Gary Becker&#x20;

* People interact with others to maximizes personal benefit and minimize personal cost&#x20;

### Chapter 8 Social Penetration Theory of Irwin Altman & Dalmas Taylor

## Influence&#x20;

### Chapter 16 Cognitive Dissonance Theory of Leon Festinger

Original: Cognitive dissonance is the distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person's two beliefs or a belief and an action. &#x20;

Three Hypothesis:&#x20;

* Selective exposure prevents dissonance: People tend to avoid information that would create dissonance&#x20;
  * Entertainment, humor can bypass this.&#x20;
  * Selective exposure doesn't kick-in if people don't see the information as threat
* Postdecision Dissonance Creates a Need for Reassurance: People feel dissonance after making an important close-call decision that is difficult to reverse.&#x20;
  * Aspects that increases dissonance: importance of issue, time it takes to make the decition, difficulty to reverse&#x20;
* Minimal Justification for Action Induces Attitude Change: The best way to stimulate an attitude change is to offer just enough reward / punishment to elicit overt compliance
  * $1/$20 experiment: Providing too much incentive give a justification to the inconsistent behavior, and thus reduce cognance, and means no incentive to change attitude.&#x20;

Three Reversion

* Elliot Aronson: Dissonance is caused by inconsistency between self-concept and cognition, not purely logical inconsistency.&#x20;
* Joel Cooper: Dissonance is caused by knowing that the behavior causes adverse events but still did it.&#x20;
* Claude Steele: Strong self-esteem can reduce dissonance. People will focus on other great achievement and render inconsistency as a minor aspect.&#x20;

Critique:&#x20;

* Daryl Bem: too complicated. Self-perception theory can explain the phenomenon too.&#x20;
  * Self-perception theory: We determine our attitude the same way an outside observer do, i.e.,: by observing behavior.&#x20;
* Lack of clear metrics to detect and quantify dissonance&#x20;
  * potential breakthrough in neural-imaging.&#x20;

## Chapter 29 Cultivation Theory of George Gerbner&#x20;

Summary: TV power comes from symbolic content. Heavy TV viewer's perception of reality is influenced by TV&#x20;

Three components

* Institutional analysis: why companies produce the content that they are producing&#x20;
* Message system analysis: analysis of the content&#x20;
* Cultivation analysis: how TV content affects viewer's perception of reality.&#x20;

Mainstreaming: The blurring and blending process of heavy TV viewers forming a single homogenous group&#x20;

Resonance: The condition that exists when viewer's real-life environment is like the world of TV, makes viewer more susceptible to TV&#x20;

Critique:&#x20;

* Lack of testability on causal directions&#x20;

## Media Equation (Archived Chapter)

Theory:&#x20;

* People respond to communication media as if they were alive.&#x20;
* It is counter-intuitive and people may claim "not me"
* Evolution as mechanism, human are evolved to think things are real.&#x20;

Expperiment

* Interpersonal Distance: When figures in media are up and close, peole have stronger response.&#x20;
* Similarity and Attraction: Students more socially and intellectually attracted to computers that matched their personality.&#x20;
* Source Credibility: Viewers who watched the news tape on the specialist television rated the reporter's stories are better.&#x20;

Critique:&#x20;

* Dangerous potentual use case. Theory offers no way to defend against Media Equation way of thinking.&#x20;
* Uses social-psych definition of communication, experiments only focus on one way communication.&#x20;

## Computer as Social Actors (CaSA)&#x20;

* More restricted compare to Media Equation&#x20;
* Requires:&#x20;
  * Social cues: individuals must be presented with an object that has enough cues to lead the person to categorize it as worthy of social response&#x20;
  * Sourcing: Individuals can see computer as source of information&#x20;
* Applies to Human Computer Interaction, not Computer Mediated Communication
* Influence factors
  * Experience level&#x20;
  * Individual wellbeing&#x20;
  * Perceived humannes
  * Anthropormorphic cues and repeated interactions&#x20;
